Jessica
Brenner
Final Paper
29 April
2014
Dr. Chandler
Self
Identity through Secondary Discourses
Crowds
have been cheering since the beginning of sports teams, but it was not until
the late 1800’s that organized cheerleading came into play. When most people hear the word
“cheerleading”, they automatically think of girls in short skirts but, in fact,
men started the sport. It was not until
1923 that women finally joined the world of cheerleading and began dominating
the sport during World War II when the men were out fighting for their
country. It was during this time that
cheerleading began to incorporate tumbling, stunting, and props like megaphones
and pom-poms. Today, a hundred years
after its start, the sport of cheerleading has become all-American and
continues to grow. People off all ages
and all genders from all over the world participate. Although started by males and then
transitioning to females, cheerleading is now embraced by both sexes. Cheerleading continues to make its way into
the sports work, a well as the world of popular culture.
In
terms of academia, all reports on cheerleading have been done on gender and
gender equality. Works such as
“Cheerleading and the Gendered Politics of Sport” and “Hands on Hips, Smiles
and Lips!” by Laura Grindstaff of the University of California and Emily West
of the University of Massachusetts focus on the gender issues within the
cheerleading world. Unlike the works of
Grindstaff and West, my study will show how the role of cheerleading reflects a
person’s self image and the importance of relationships within a tightly bonded
team. The study will ultimately differ
from others, aside from the topic, because it is written by an inside source
rather than an observer not from the field.
The interviews and observations are done from a peer-to-peer perspective
rather than a stranger to cheerleader one. My study will negotiate, through
observations and an interview, the way the cheerleaders think about themselves
as well as part of their team. This will
in turn, complicate the moves the cheerleaders make to come up with a story on
who they are as individuals.
Thinking of
Discourse as a “Way of Being”
In
“Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics,” Author James Paul Gee attempts to
explain “a way of thinking about literacy” and “literacy studies” (Gee, 525). He describes how a Discourse, with a capital
“D”, is not the same as discourse, with a lower case “d”. His overall claim
within his paper is that “the focus of literacy studies or applied linguistics
should not be language, or literacy, but, social practices.” Throughout the work, James Gee makes note to
detail the different types of Discourses and introduces several new terms to
strengthen and make clear his argument.
James
Gee starts off by explaining that “language” is not particularly grammar but, “what
you say, how you say it, and what you are and do when you say it “ (Gee, 525). To demonstrate this first claim, he describes
two responses by women in an interview that show different dialect. James Gee writes, “At any moment we are using
language we must say or write the right thing in the right way while playing
the right social role and hold right values, beliefs, and attitudes. Thus, what it important is not language, and
surely not grammar, but saying (writing)-doing-being-valuing-believing
combinations” (Gee, 526). Here, to help
understand his claim, Gee describes that a Discourse, with a capital “D” is
almost like an “identity kit” and people have many of them.
To acquire a Discourse, Gee states that a
person cannot learn by instruction but by apprenticeship. Apprenticeship is one of Gee’s terms that
simply apply to the social practice of that particular discourse to become
familiar with it. Next, Gee explains how
there is tension and conflict among one’s Discourse. What this means is that the ways of one
Discourse may interfere with the ways of another, and a person is ultimately who
they are based on a combination effect.
Gee uses several terms to go in depth about Discourses.
Gee
then goes into Primary socialization, or the acquisition of a person’s Primary
Discourse, is what they obtain from their families and growing up. Primary Discourse can affect a person’s
world-view the most. Secondary
Discourses are acquires by apprenticeship in the community or social
institutions. Dominant discourses are
secondary discourses that bring fourth the social goods. Non-dominant discourses are secondary
discourse that being solidarity within a particular social network. Gee’s definition of literacy is, “the master
of or fluent control over a secondary Discourse” (Gee, 528). In his argument, literacy is plural since
everyone has more than one. Literacy can
be liberating in the sense that bring about a meta-language that can be
beneficial.
Another
one of Gee’s claims is that a dominant discourse, such as a social institution,
could be used as a test. This test could
be for for natives and a gate for non-natives or, it could be looked at as
fluent users versus newcomers. James Gee
also goes into great detail about how primary and secondary discourse
acquisition is similar to learning a new language. The first and second language can interfere
with each other, but learning the second can strengthen the primary.
Furthermore,
Gee present two theorems to his argument.
The first, Gee argues, that someone cannot engage in a Discourse in a
less fluent manner. The second is that
Primary Discourses cannot be liberating literacies. Finally, Gee ties all of his terms together
with an example of a story created by a five year old. The story is written in lines and stanzas,
demonstrating the filtering and transferring, and of course, showing practices
of a Discourse. James Gee gives detail
about the child’s primary Discourse and how it is affected, and how it affects
their literacies, just as he did for his entire paper. It is apparent that Gee covered a lot of
ground in his paper but he covered everything there is to know about defining
the terms of Discourse and discourse.
James Paul Gee provided great foundation and understanding for the study
I have conducted.
Methods
To gather data, the researcher
conducted an interview and observed four practices. For the practice observations, the researcher
has spent four inconsecutive days, two (Tuesday/Wednesday) practices in one
week and two (Tuesday/Wednesday) practices the following week. Each practice took place at Bayonne Elite
Cheerleading’s Gym in Jersey City, New Jersey.
At the practices, the researcher closely observed the interaction
between five members of the team and the coaches.
The
interview was completed with Bayonne Elite Cheers team captain who will be
referred to a Kim. This name is not
affiliated or even close to the interviewee’s real name. Jane is currently a senior in high school and
it is her last year on the team. She was
chosen for this interview because she has a lot of cheerleading experience and
has been doing it since she was five years old.
She is currently the captain of a team that is made up of twenty-two
girls and one boy.
The
interview took place on a Wednesday night in-between practice and
gymnastics. Kim and I did not formally
sit down at a desk to conduct the interview.
We sat on a quiet side of the gym where Jane could easily be heard and
not distracted. Kim felt comfortable in
the space provided and the interview almost came natural to both. The questions I asked Kim were based on her
experience with cheerleading formulating her self-identity. I wanted to gain insight on cheerleading from
another person’s perspective other than myself.
The interview lasted twenty minutes and was recorded on an IPhone so, it
could be listed to after for reference.
Date Analysis
After acquiring the data from
the cheerleading team and captain Jane, it was determined that the features
identified in “Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics,” by James Paul Gee did
represent features found in the data.
The team and the members certainly represented discourse as “a way of
being.”
Individuality
As A “Team”
In this excerpt, J asks the
interviewee, Kim, what her most memorable experience was with
cheerleading. Now, Kim, as stated in the
interview, has been cheerleading her whole life.
J It’s amazing how dedicated you are to
your team! What is your most memorable experience
with cheerleading?
K Wow, this is a hard one like I could go on forever with a list of
memories but I would have to say nationals last year in Orlando,
Florida was most memorable and one I
will always remember. We
had such a rough season and it was amazing when we won national champions. Everyone was crying and hugging one another. You know, it was such a bittersweet
moment. My team and I worked so hard to become national champions and when we finally
did it, the feeling was incredible. It was my first time at
a national competition. The arena was huge and the lights on the mat were so bright. The experience
as well as the memories made I will never forget. Like we bonded so
well. It was great.
As is can be seen, when asked about the most
memorable moment, instead of choosing a past memory, a more recent memory like
“nationals last year in Orlando, Florida,” is chosen as most memorable. It is here, that readers see Jane switch from
talking about herself using “I” (“I could go on forever”) to talking about the
team as a whole using “we” (“we had a rough season”). Kim starts off her response by stating her
personal, individual statement by stating “her” most memorable experience but
shifts her tone of voice when she says it is one she would always remember. Instead of saying that Kim worked hard or had
a rough season individually, Kim related to the team as a whole.
It can be pointed out from this direct excerpt
that the team is a well working oil machine that succeeds and fails as
one. Yes in a team, there is no “I” but
the question was directed directly towards the interviewee as an individual and
was answered by “we had a rough season” and “My team and I”. It is interesting to see that an individual
experience turned into a team experience.
It is not the Primary Discourse that has shaped Kim’s self identity but
the social practices in which she is involved in.
“In
Defense of Cheerleaders”
In excerpt two, J asks Kim if cheerleaders
should be treated as athletes. Again,
readers see a shift here from “I” to “we”.
Also, during the interview, the interviewee got defensive with the
topic. Normally, in defense, people
would defend themselves but here, Kim defends her team as a whole.
J
Great positive response, there is always so much negativity formed around cheerleaders. Don’t you think?
Don’t you think cheerleaders should be treated as athletes?
K Oh god, this is my favorite topic! I always enjoy arguing with people
why cheerleaders should be treated as
athletes! Cheerleader’s train,
if not the same, then more than any
other sport! We are in
the gym for hours perfecting our techniques and
our routine. Cheerleading
is not just a season, it is a yearly sport, it never ends. We
are always thinking and doing something to improve our skills. We have a game plan just like every other sport out
there. We train just as
hard as every team out there. You
have someone try and do back flips and stunts within a 2 minute and 30 second routine and then tell me cheerleading is
not athletic! I do not think people
know the hard work and dedication that
goes into being on a cheerleading team.
Just after reading the first two examples, it
becomes obvious that this cheerleading team has most certainly affected Jane’s
development of her self-identity just by how the words “I” and “we” are used. It can be directly noted from the data that when
one fails, they all go down together.
Kim makes some generalization claims as to
cheerleading being a sport because it is all year round but again, when defending
skills, technique, and training, Kim uses “we” (“we are always thinking and
doing something to improve our skills,” “we train just as hard”). In this section, Kim is answering and
defending a cultural story about “all-American” cheerleading not being a
sport. Instead of defending cheerleading
as a general whole, Jane defends the Secondary discourse, which she belongs
too. It is not about the grammar, Like
James Paul Gee states, it is about “what you say, how you say it, and
what you are and do when you say it.”
Kim most certainly fits that phrase throughout her entire interview
process.
Cheerleading
As A “Way of Being”
In this excerpt, J asks Kim how cheerleading
has positively affected her life. Unlike
the first two examples, G speaks as an individual rather than a team. There is a lot more use of the word “I” here
and it is most certainly obvious that Kim’s feelings are being projected in the
answer. Although Kim is saying her
response from an individual standpoint, the thought of her team and life long
friends is still present.
J Great! So how has cheerleading
affected your life in a positive way?
K Well lets see, cheerleading has
opened so many new doors in my life! It has taught me respect and teamwork. I have also made so many new friends
from being on the team throughout
the years. These friends are lifetime friends; we share a bond that no one else will! Being on a
cheerleading team has taught me good sportsmanship and how to be a good team player. The life lesson I
have learned and will learn I will carry with me for the rest of my
life. My coaches are such great role models and although they yell, I know they are so proud and
encouraging. Cheerleading has been
a great life lesson and I wish everyone could experience this just like my teammates
and I.
By pointing out that the coaches yell (“My
coaches are good role models although they yell”) but are at the same time
proud and encouraging shows another aspect of the tight niche Discourse. It shows that the team has a friendly level
of respect for their coaches and knows they mean no harm when they are
mad. It is not until the very end of the
excerpt do readers see the phrase “teammates and I”. Kim wishes that people who do not endure in
cheerleading still experience the tight bond which the Discourse shares. It can be noted here that cheerleading is not
just something Kim does for herself. It
is something she does for her team and is a “way of being” to her lifestyle. The lessons Kim learned in her secondary
institution are things that were not acquired from home but will be used for
the rest of her life.
“Together
We Stand, Together We Fall”
During the observations at
practice, everything that Kim had stated was affirmed. Each practice runs different depending on
different moods. Aside from the moods
and attitudes it can be seen that each girl of the five girls treated the team
the same way Kim did. They would do
anything for one another in a heartbeat.
Even during tumbling, an individual aspect of the routine, the five
girls made it into a group project. When
the girls are finally ready to tumble during practice, each cheerleader
observed ran through her part in the routine throwing flip after flip. It is here where they encouraged each other
the most. After each cheerleader goes,
everyone claps and cheers them on. While
a person is warming up their skill, most cheerleaders use phrases such as “come
on” or “you can do this” to encourage them to do a great job and finish their
skill strong.
Although
tumbling is usually from an individual standpoint, the encouragement and
cheering makes the skill become teamwork.
Through the communication here, girls want to do better and perfect
their skill not only for themselves but also for the team. It can be seen that the girls care greatly
about one another’s performance and want each other to excel and do well. Just like Kim’s responses in the interview,
everything that has to do with the individual turns into the word of “we” and “us”. The team takes the James Paul Gee’s sense of
being to a whole new level in discovering exactly who they are as an
individual.
Conclusions/Limitations
To conclude, it is most certain that being a
part of a tightly bonded team influences one’s self-identity. The
cheerleading team studied exemplifies these characteristics in developing and
finding their self-identities through one another. The differences in
this study, compared to the other studies done, are vital in understanding the
positive aspects of being a part of a cheerleading team. It is obvious that James Paul Gee’s “way of
being” shines throughout the entire paper. Although this research is
based on a single case study, it can be concluded that there are positive
aspects that come out of being a part of a cheerleading team. This
research sets a foundation for further understanding about the all-American
sport that everyone loves.
In the
future, further research should be done on other cheerleading teams about the
positive aspects the sport brings to the athletes lives. Besides from the
research, most studies show the negative, gender aspects and cultural norms
that most people already know about. Unfortunately, the research shown
was only concluded on one cheerleading team and there may not be enough
information provided to make concrete conclusions about cheerleading as a
whole.
Moreover, to
better support the claim that what you say, how you say it, and what you
are and do when you say it is responsible for the moves made by the
participants, data would need to be collected in another context so the proper
theory can be made. Nonetheless, the
data successfully distinguished the features that were not recognized or done
in previous studies, and therefore, future research can apply this data
presented to better understand the positivity and self-identity roles within a
cheerleading team.
Works Cited
Gee, James P.
"Literacy, Discourse, and Linguistics: Introduction and What Is
Literacy?" Literacy: A Critical Source Book. New York, New York:
Bedford/St. Martins, 2001. 525-54. Print.
Grindstaff, Laura,
and Emily West. ""Hands on Hips, Smiles on Lips!" Gender, Race,
and the Performance of Spirit in Cheerleading." Taylor and Francis.
N.p., 13 Apr. 2010. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
West, Emily, and
Laura Grindstaff. "SelectedWorks of Emily E. West." "Cheerleading
and the Gendered Politics of Sport" by Laura Grindstaff, Et Al. N.p.,
2006. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
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